(In sharp contrast, becoming a father typically does not reduce a man’s earnings.) Each additional child reduces average women’s earnings by another 3 percent. One study found that a woman with one child earns 28 percent less on average over her career than a woman without children, partially as a result of time out of the work force. Caregiving provided during women’s 20s and 30s, when careers are formed and when age-earnings profiles are relatively steep, creates career-long earning losses. Primarily, women provide a majority of unpaid family caregiving, which can lead women to interrupt their careers, seek part-time jobs in the market, or work in low-wage occupations to maintain flexibility. For several interrelated reasons, average lifetime earnings are substantially lower for women than for men.
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